Part 1:  Aboriginal Cultures, History, and Sexual and Reproductive Health

This Part of the Sourcebook celebrates Aboriginal traditional ways and teachings about sexuality and reproduction and looks at the effects of the arrival of the Europeans and the particular impact of the residential schools. This information about culture and history provides the background that educators and health and social service providers need if they want to work successfully with First Nations, Inuit or Métis clients. The final sections of Part 1 offer general advice about getting started on a program or service related to any aspect of sexual and reproductive health and suggest activities and materials for working with Aboriginal clients of different ages.

Part 1 of the Sourcebook provides some important background for working on the issues detailed in the 18 units contained in Part 2.


Part 1 is intended for both Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal service providers, regardless of your experience working with Aboriginal clients and communities. If you have lots of experience, think of Part 1 as a review — likely you will find something you did not know before.

This Sourcebook looks at sexual and reproductive health, and ill health, with a view to the common themes in Aboriginal ways of thinking about the world.


Sexual and reproductive health is more than healthy sexual organs and healthy pregnancies; it is more than avoiding diseases and other health problems. Sexual and reproductive health goes far beyond only these physical aspects of the individual. Many of us are beginning to realize that our health is affected by everything around us.

For Aboriginal people, this broader view of health in general, and sexual and reproductive health in particular, is shown in traditional ideas about the individual. Most traditional Aboriginal world views see every individual having four interconnected aspects. All experiences of the individual are seen in light of these four aspects: physical, mental, emotional and spiritual.

Good health is a balance of physical, mental, emotional and spiritual elements. All four interact for a strong healthy person. If we neglect one, we get out of balance and our health suffers in all areas. Good health is achieved when we live in a balanced relationship with the earth and the natural world. Everything we need is provided by our common mother, earth; whole foods, pure water and air, medicines, and the laws and teachings which show how to use things wisely. Combined with an active lifestyle, a positive attitude, and peaceful and harmonious relations with people and the spiritual world, good health will be ours.¹ (click here for footnote)


All aspects of the individual are connected and a change in one can affect all of the others. The "whole" is as important as its parts and it is important to consider all of the parts. Some people call this idea "wholism" or "holism."

But the holistic idea goes far beyond the individual. The health of the individual — the balance in the four aspects — is deeply connected to family, community and nation, as well as to the environment — land, water and air. Although we know that the earth’s health is necessary to our survival, we generally do not consider the land, water and air as aspects of sexual and reproductive health. However, modern science is beginning to understand the relationship of pollutants in water to birth defects and low sperm counts, and the importance of healthy soil to produce enough food for our families.

Modern science is beginning to echo what Aboriginal people have known for centuries — the health of Mother Earth is essential to our own health.


Although the world views held by the different First Nations, Inuit and Métis in Canada are not entirely the same, they have these common themes — a holistic view of the individual and the connections between all things.

The theme of inter-relatedness and connections runs through all traditional Aboriginal thinking, including healthy sexuality.

Traditional Views of Sexuality

Although common themes exist among traditional Aboriginal views, each nation and community has grown from unique cultural roots and spiritual beliefs. Legends and ceremonies of the different tribes and nations give glimpses into how people lived before the arrival of the Europeans. It is not possible to describe in much detail the traditional views of sexuality. The following are the perspectives of a few individuals on sexuality for First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples.

Sexuality from a First Nations Perspective

From a long time ago, First Nations people saw sexuality as a gift and a source of great pleasure. We express our sexuality physically, mentally, emotionally and spiritually, in ways which are influenced by our cultures, families and spiritual beliefs.

Sexuality was not shameful. Community adults taught children openly about their bodies, the moon time and other sexual and reproductive passages. Children were often present at a birth. Sexuality was a gift and there were rules about how to respect that gift.

In most First Nations, sexual promiscuity and perversion were regarded as harmful, and even dangerous to the well-being of the people. Rape was uncommon and regarded as a very serious offense, for which there were heavy consequences. Incest was a taboo in all tribes, and most had stories warning of its dangers. Sexual acts between adults and children were prohibited as well.³ (click here for footnote)

Sexuality from an Inuit Perspective

Inuit saw living together as a young couple as okay, and quite often if the young mother was unable to look after her child, it would be taken care of by the extended family. Every parent wants their child to do the right thing, but in the olden days, if young girls had babies, it was not seen as a shameful or bad thing to do. If the girl was seen to be too young to raise the baby, the baby would be loved and taken care of by a family member. It wasn’t until the Europeans came and brought their own way of thinking that living together in common-law became a bad thing and shameful. Even though there is more modern education about relationships nowadays, and there seems to be more openness about sexuality and reproduction, more babies are born today than there were then. I don’t understand why this is. It would seem that with more education about protection and prevention today, young people would be more aware than we were then. But still babies are born much more frequently now.

The methods and the approaches [for preventing pregnancy] are so different now. Inuit had their own way of prevention but quickly were influenced by the Europeans. The Europeans saw things only according to their way of thinking, without realizing Inuit ways were more effective for Inuit ...

No one was sheltered from birthing knowledge. Children and young adults gained experience from watching, and men often assisted their wives. The entire family was involved more actively in the events surrounding pregnancy and birth than is the case today ... Inuk woman from Labrador

What is most often addressed in history books is that male European fur traders and explorers needed to take Indian wives, but what isn’t addressed is that, over time, so many children were born as the result of these unions, the Métis, or "halfbreeds," began to form settlements and intermarry with other children of mixed ancestry. In the west, the population explosion of Métis people meant that during the 1800s, in certain locations, people of Métis ancestry easily outnumbered First Nations and non-Aboriginal people. Métis married Métis, had Métis children, lived in Métis communities, spoke Métis languages (Michif), and practised Métis culture. The making of a Métis Nation spanned over 200 years.
Métis woman from Ontario


The unions of Métis were not exclusive to each other — there were also unions between Métis and First Nations and Métis and non-Aboriginal. Métis people of the day easily intermarried regardless of racial or ancestral background. These were the positive, free and happy times in Métis history.

Métis men were often seen as more openly sexually active or more sexually promiscuous than Indian or white. They were fun loving, dashing, brave. The men and women both became "hot" items. A lot of men and women on either side wanted them. Think of the good looks of First Nations and the good looks of non-Aboriginal people, and you get a Métis with twice the good looks of either. But seriously, the men and women were often married into the white society or Indian society. But, the more the priests came in, the more their influence, the more the idea of sex being dirty pervaded all Aboriginal communities. Before that it was natural and beautiful, an act of love, a union between a man and a woman, and as a result of their love there came other beauty in children. The children cemented the love between the man and woman.
Métis man living in a Métis settlement in Alberta


Before the introduction of modern medicine, the Kokums (Grandmothers) were the keepers of the knowledge of herbal medicines, including medicines for birth control. They were the midwives in the community and had knowledge of a whole range of medicines to cure any illness in their families. The knowledge for using many of these medicines was shared from First Nations to the Métis.

Some Things that Affect Aboriginal Sexual and Reproductive Health

The reality of Aboriginal existence has been described as the "Circle of Life" or the "Sacred Hoop". This concept could be loosely described as a continuum of age-related roles and physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual well-being which is congruent with the cycles of nature. Prior to colonization [by Europeans], Aboriginal communities in the Americas were diverse and thriving. Shaped by the environment and available technologies, they ranged from the large cities of the Cherokee confederacy, Mayans and Inca peoples, to the smaller mobile groups of plains and northern peoples.⁴ (click here for footnote)


Like other Indigenous peoples of the world whose lands were colonized, the sexuality of First Nations and Inuit people was greatly affected by the arrival of the Europeans. According to historians, the first years of contact in what is now Canada included fragile but fairly peaceful relations. Contact with First Nations included trading and fighting together against common enemies. The relationships at times developed into sincere and friendly partnerships.

The Métis were born out of this relationship and, over time, they developed a distinct culture, language (Michif) and way of life which was a fusion between the two worlds of First Nations and Europeans. The Métis became a distinct nation of Aboriginal people; they began living on their own, in their own communities. And for a time, they were free and economically self-sufficient.

Meanwhile, contact with the Inuit was much later, becoming more general in the late 19th century. The Inuit culture was rich in spiritual belief and social life. The Inuit lived in seasonal camps on the land.

We sustained our natural resources by knowing and understanding our environment ... We were much in control of our own lives and governed ourselves under the guidance of our respected elders. Our decisions were based on consensus, which meant that in a difficult situation the whole community would have input and the final decision would contribute to the community’s well-being. This lifestyle was passed on from generation to generation so that everyone would have the skills to live in harmony with the land and with one each other and to contribute to our society.⁵  (click here for footnote)


However, over time, the effects of colonization for Inuit, Métis and First Nations were the same. The balance of mutual partnerships faded and the Europeans shifted to a full take-over — removing Aboriginal people from our traditional lands, not recognizing our governments, and trying to destroy cultures and erase identities. Hunger, infectious diseases, imposed religious practises, disrupted families and communities, as well as physical, emotional and sexual abuse became common. Many, many people died.

Before contact, the population of First Nations and Inuit people in what is now Canada was 500,000. By 1871, that number had dropped to 102,000. For those First Nations who survived, the Indian Acts of 1876, 1880, 1884 and others, outlawed ceremonies such as the sundance and potlatch, removed control over food, goods, and travel and took many children away to live in residential schools. The turning point for the Métis was in 1885, when they were defeated at Batoche and Métis leader and hero Louis Riel was hanged.

The greatest impact on Inuit culture came in the late 1950s and 1960s when the federal government moved many Inuit from their traditional camps into settlements. The long-established culture of self-sufficiency ended. Decision making quickly shifted from community members to government- appointed administrators. In less than three decades, many Inuit had lost their independence and, with it, their self-esteem and pride.⁶  (click here for footnote)

By 1879, residential schools had been accepted as an integral part of the official government policy of assimilation of Aboriginal people, and so began the forced registry of children in these schools.

They registered children from every Aboriginal culture — Indian, Inuit, and Métis children, too — though the federal government assumed no constitutional responsibility for Métis people. While Métis children would be invisible, and rarely mentioned in the records, they were nevertheless there and were treated the same as all the children were.7  (click here for footnote)

Parents and grandparents left at home lost their role of teaching cultural traditions, of loving and nurturing their children. Children in the residential schools lost connections with loving families, communities, their language and traditions and were subjected to ... abuses. The negative impact of these abuses and loss of positive parental role models has been transferred intergenerationally and lives on today in our communities.⁸  (click here for footnote)


The children who survived the residential schools are the parents and grandparents of today. In addition to the damage caused to the individual survivors, we must consider the long-term effects on the present and future generations, including dislocation from community, loss of the ability to parent and loss of pride, self-respect, identity, language, spirituality, and culture.⁹ (click here for footnote)

The CFS [Catholic Family Services] came and took me out of the hospital when I was born and put me into foster care immediately, under the pretence that my parents would have a whole year to "prove" to the rest of the world that they could take care of me. Six months into my foster care, I was already adopted ... I was taught I was white and that Indians were dirty. The province had a responsibility to educate those parents. I believe that genetics plays a strong influence in what people are like. I always knew deep inside I was Aboriginal, either Métis or First Nations.
A Manitoba-born Métis man


Now these children are adults and many have spent years struggling with their identities and searching for their roots. Recently, a group of these adults who have reclaimed their cultures, began working together to start up a service for Aboriginal people trying to reconnect with their communities and families. Connecting With All My Relations now has a newsletter and is working to raise funds to establish a web site.¹⁰ (click here for footnote)

How Others See Us Is How We Come to See Ourselves

Colonization and racism go hand in hand. Racism has provided justification for the subjugation of Aboriginal peoples ... Over time, racial stereotypes and societal rejection may be internalized by the colonized group.¹¹  (click here for footnote)


Racism is the belief that race creates important differences between people, and that one race is better than other races. Many Europeans considered Aboriginal people to be inferior to "white" people. Faced with negative ideas about who they are and treated badly over generations, many Aboriginal people have "internalized" these ideas, that is, they have come to believe they are stupid, dirty, lazy and immoral. We have come to believe that the "white way" is better than our way. The result is often shame and self-hatred of ourselves and other Aboriginal people.

Prior to colonization, Aboriginal women enjoyed comparative honour, equality and even political power in a way European women did not at the same time in history. We can trace the diminishing status of Aboriginal women with the progression of colonialism. Many Aboriginal cultures were originally matriarchical or semi-matriarchical. Because of white intrusion, the matriarchical character of Aboriginal spiritual, economic, kinship, and political institutions was drastically altered.¹² (click here for footnote)

Many of the serious health and social concerns of Aboriginal people today, including sexual and reproductive health problems, have been linked to low self-esteem resulting from the effects of colonialism. Infant deaths, teen pregnancies, sexually transmitted infections, including HIV/AIDS, fetal alcohol syndrome and fetal alcohol effects (FAS/FAE), working in the sex trade, and cervical cancer are all more common among Aboriginal populations than the general population in Canada. Similarly, alcohol and drug abuse, family violence and suicide affect sexual and reproductive health and are all higher in Aboriginal communities.

Lack of self-worth and lack of confidence can both lead to and result from health and social problems.

[The] dysfunction of today is a legacy of disrupted relationships in the past, but the effects are broader and more diffuse than can be traced in a direct cause-effect relationship. There are entire communities whose members are imbued with a sense  of ... powerlessness, the effect of multiple violations having reverberated throughout kin networks.13 (click here for footnote)

While many Aboriginal communities are making major changes today to strengthen their communities and cultures, children and youth are still at high risk for sexual and reproductive health problems and other problems.

Part of what diminishes the self-worth [of youth] are labels of "troubled" or "high risk" which come to define them ... Quite often we are guilty of seeing them as nothing but problems. We never get a chance to talk to them about their gifts, their abilities, and their dreams. They are poets, writers, inventors, master storytellers, comedians, brothers, sisters, friends, daughters and sons. How do we keep this part of them alive? Healthy youth are sound, not only in body and mind but also in spirit.

What is needed ... is to understand and celebrate the contributions which youth bring to Canadian society. Respect and validation are essential ingredients for a healthy sense of self-esteem.14 (click here for footnote)

We know that many Aboriginal people in Canada today live in poverty. Sexual and reproductive health is affected by poverty, just as all aspects of health are.

For a person to be healthy, [he or she] must be adequately fed, be educated, have access to medical facilities, have access to spiritual comfort, live in a warm and comfortable house with clean water and safe sewage disposal, be secure in cultural identity, have an opportunity to excel in a meaningful endeavour, and so on. These are not separate needs; they are all aspects of a whole.¹⁵ (click here for footnote)


Dramatic improvements have taken place over the past 200 years in the health of Canadians in general because of economic growth and therefore better food, safer housing, a clean water supply, adequate waste disposal and planned children. However, many Aboriginal individuals and communities have high rates of poverty, bad housing and unsafe water supplies and waste disposal. These problems make it very difficult for people to remain healthy. Poor nutrition makes us more likely to get infectious diseases and to heal slowly from them. Poverty and poor living conditions can lead to alcohol and drug abuse, family violence and sexual violence. These things make it harder for people to be safe in their sexual encounters and to choose partners wisely. Unemployment can make it harder to parent because of depression and anger.

Healing is about restoring balance to all aspects of our lives. More and more Aboriginal people are aware of our history and the reasons for our position in Canadian society. We are less and less likely to judge or blame ourselves or to act according to "white" standards. Many Aboriginal individuals and communities are taking action to heal themselves, their families, communities and nations. The treatment of individuals is only part of the healing process that needs to take place. Bonds of trust and hope must be rebuilt within entire communities as well.

Being an oppressed people discourages decision making, question asking, and confidence in one’s own actions. Equal relationships [rather than the relationship between the oppressed and the oppressor], and interaction on the same level, allow for greater awareness, understanding and knowledge. Relationships are key to developing strategies for healing. Building healthy relationships today is critical to building healthy communities for tomorrow.¹⁶  (click here for footnote)


The lives of children and youth are closely connected with their parents and a sense of belonging to a community. We learn from watching, listening, absorbing and, ultimately, repeating the words and actions which surround us. Aboriginal youth need to deal with the pain of racism, residential schooling, being adopted or placed in foster care, and cultural break-up.

Not until I started my healing journey did I recognize the negative impact of residential schools that I was passing on to my children. I’m here to learn from others so my children and grandchildren can be healthy.¹⁷  (click here for footnote)


We are learning that after generations of silence, talking is very important. If the stories are not being told, the healing is not being done.

[I fear] we will repeat poor parenting ... experience discomfort in communicating with each other about safe sex ... My culture saved me. Ceremony saved me. Today I feel good inside. I have learned to forgive. Choose your own way to heal.¹⁸  (click here for footnote)


Mental health workers are beginning to recognize that the common theme of our healing actions is our collective orientation toward life rather than the individualist philosophy of Euro-American culture. We heal through actions which acknowledge interconnectedness, we connect or reconnect to friends, family, community, nature and culture.

First Nations people have recognized the overwhelming need to be reconnected and to reclaim that which was taken, and are now acting to reconnect and strengthen those bonds ... [Healing actions most commonly have been] establishing a social connection and obtaining help and support from others ... establishing a spiritual connection and participating in ceremony ... [and] establishing a connection with nature.¹⁹  
                             (click here for footnote)


Many healing projects exist across Canada. See Unit 11 — The Residential School Experience for examples and for the web site of the Aboriginal Healing Foundation which has profiles of projects it has funded.

Traditional Ceremonies

Traditionally, every Aboriginal society had some way of recognizing the passage from childhood to adulthood. When the colonizer came, these ceremonies (like all our ceremonies) were forced underground or lost to the pressures of assimilation. Today certain rites of passage are now experiencing rebirth in our communities, and they are being practised in such a way that they support the needs of contemporary Aboriginal youth.²⁰  (click here for footnote)


For example, the Berry Fast has its origins in Ojibway country in Ontario and Minnesota. It begins around the time of first menstruation, an occasion that has always marked the passing from childhood to womanhood. The article from which the following description is taken talks about the origins of the Berry Fast and how a growing number of women today practise the ceremony to teach young girls many valuable life lessons for modern times.

Interconnectedness in Sexual and Reproductive Health

First Nations, Métis and Inuit cultures and their ways of life have a common spiritual value: the connections among all things (interconnectedness).

	Today, the interconnectedness of creation with its Creator is at the centre of the healing movement in Aboriginal communities. Elders, who are the depositories of traditional knowledge and wisdom, are playing a major role in the re-establishment of this interconnectedness, harmony, balance and wellness.
The traditional Aboriginal belief that harmony with nature is the source of wellness has been adopted by many branches of science and belief systems in the western world. Deep ecology, ecopsychology, wilderness therapy, and bioregionalism are some of the modern names given to traditional Aboriginal approaches to a balanced life.
Thus one of the principles of ecopsychology states that "The earth is a living system. Human beings are fundamentally interconnected with the Earth and with all life. Neither the earth’s problems nor humanity’s problems can be resolved without taking full account of this interconnection." 22 (click here for footnote)

Interconnectedness is a key element of the traditional values of all Aboriginal people. The Sacred Tree was developed in 1984 by Elders, spiritual leaders and professionals from different Aboriginal communities in North America as a way to bring together the spiritual teachings of many different Aboriginal groups. The first of the 12 First Principles of The Sacred Tree is:

Wholeness. All things are interrelated. Everything in the universe is a part of a single whole. Everything is connected in some way to everything else. It is therefore possible to understand something only if we can understand how it is connected to everything else.23  (click here for footnote)

The Individual

For individuals there is progress from one role to another as we age, and connections between the generations that strengthen us all.

	Infants are regarded by their elders, family and community as gifts from the Creator.
	Children bring love, respect, caring, and sharing to their families.
	Youth bring activity and zest for life.
Young adults (and parents) are moving toward the west direction which signifies maturity and action.
Grandparents and elders bring greater wisdom, love, and spiritual meaning and understanding in their roles as healers, counsellors, guides, and keepers of the Aboriginal teachings and ceremonies.24 (click here for footnote)

Adults become the community’s teachers, healers and leaders. We use our own learning and the wisdom of our Elders to keep communities and families strong.

These are the traditional roles in many Aboriginal cultures. Today, in some communities, these roles continue almost unchanged. In others, much has changed. The Inuit Way: A Guide to Inuit Culture describes many aspects of the traditional ways of Inuit and the effects of the imposed move away from their life on the land.

Inuit have a holistic vision of the individual. A human being is one with his or her surroundings, a part of a whole that draws its meaning from the relationships that the human being has with whatever is living and whatever surrounds him — a strong connection with the environment. Wellbeing flows from balance and harmony among all elements of personal and group life.

In Inuit communities, elder family members continue to play an important role in family life and are treated with great respect. They are sought out for their storytelling about the past and their advice on many issues. Children are still taught to be very respectful toward their elders. [However,] it is unfortunate that many young people have not retained enough of their language to be able to speak freely with the elders. The lives of children have been altered quite a bit compared to when Inuit lived on the land. As they become more involved with the distractions and entertainments of southern culture, children do not spend as much time with the parents as they did traditionally, thus affecting child rearing which relied heavily on close contact between parents and children.25  (click here for footnote)

Aboriginal people who lose touch with the traditional teachings often lose their sense of who they are (their identity). A person’s identity consists of:

	Body awareness: how you experience your physical presence.
	Self-concept: what you think about yourself and your potential.
Self-esteem: how you feel about yourself and your ability to grow and change.
Self-determination: your ability to use your will to actualize your physical, mental, emotional and spiritual potentialities.26  (click here for footnote)

Self-esteem is affected by how a person sees her place in her family, community and nation. Children and youth especially have been affected by the breakdown in families and communities which are trying to cope with serious health and social problems.

The health of individuals relies on families and communities. Healing for individuals cannot be separated from healing for their families and communities.

Family

Family is still the most important unit in Aboriginal societies. Only a generation or two ago, extended kin networks of parents, grandparents and clan members made up almost the entire social world for Aboriginal people, providing the place where most of the business of life took place. Children were seen as gifts and raising children was an important job for parents and grandparents. Inside the family, the values of sharing and helping each other provided a safe place for every individual. Family meant strong relationships with a large network of relatives who would be considered "extended" family in European terms.

Here is an example which shows how important family is to Inuit childbirth and how birth itself is linked to so many other aspects of the life of a child, including his sense of identity:

	When women gave birth surrounded by their family, they were cared for throughout the pregnancy and labour, and newborns were immediately welcomed. Removing birth from this family environment has affected social relationships. For example, the bonding between fathers and infants and between grandparents and grandchildren is delayed.
The midwife has an important role in the education of the growing child. Traditionally, the infant was welcomed into the world with words spoken by the midwife and sometimes with a gift. As children grew, they would be reminded of these words. Children were told who delivered them and were taught to show this person appreciation and respect. A tradition of presenting one’s midwife with the first piece of sewing or the first animal hunted reinforced and maintained this relationship.
Traditional child birthing practices were very important to the social fabric of Inuit society. The relationships go beyond the birth of the child to the education of the child and to his place within the community. Bonding within the family and extended family was also more immediate and intense.27  (click here for footnote)

The notion of "individual rights and freedoms" which is very important in North American "white" society is contrary to the traditional Aboriginal value of sharing rather than competing, in which family and community success are put ahead of individual success. The strong support provided by Aboriginal families, and the values and identities they passed on to their children, were severely disrupted by colonization and the Canadian government policy of assimilation. The important role of families must be confirmed for healing to take place.

Community

Traditionally, community has been a basis for Aboriginal sexual and reproductive health. Even Aboriginal people who moved around to find food often met in larger groups for ceremonies which marked life stages. Aboriginal rituals, celebrations and feasts were important for community leaders, healers and educators to pass on the teachings which held together families and communities. Naming ceremonies for infants, moon time teachings for young girls, and challenges for young boys entering puberty, wove the fabric which makes up Aboriginal cultures.

The problems seen in many Aboriginal communities over the last half century have had dire effects on communities. Ritual, ceremony and celebration cannot solve all of the problems but are an important way for communities to rebuild their Aboriginal culture and to help them to heal and grow.

The treatment of individuals is only part of the healing process that needs to take place. Bonds of trust and hope must be rebuilt within whole communities as well.²⁸  (click here for footnote)


Strong, healthy communities are part of healing. Healthy communities are a major source of support for individuals and families to improve sexual and reproductive health.

Nations and Groups

Aboriginal nations and groups, alone and with others, are gathering strength to help their people heal. They are working to find solutions to the health and social concerns which affect our people so greatly. Nations can help to solve the serious health problems related to sexual and reproductive health by adding to our understanding of the issues and their root causes. Nations can decide on principles for action, identify needs and decide what to work on first, develop ways to take action and suggest ideas for programs.

Aboriginal groups are giving more advice to governments about how they should spend money for health issues. Just two of many national examples in the area of sexual and reproductive health are the work Aboriginal groups are doing on Canada’s Strategy on HIV/AIDS and their involvement with Aboriginal Headstart programs for parents and children.

Part 1 continued ...

¹  Leslie Malloch, 1989, in A Guide for Health Professionals Working with Aboriginal Peoples, Janet Smylie, Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada, Ottawa, 2001, p. 21.  (back to paragraph)

²  Adapted from: Pro-Action, Postponement, Preparation and Support: A Framework for Action to Reduce the Rate of Teen Pregnancy in Canada, Young/Single Parent Support Network of Ottawa-Carleton, Timmins Native Friendship Centre and Canadian Institute of Child Health for Health Canada, Ottawa, 2000, p. 21. Available at: www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hppb/childhood-youth/cbp/npf/pdf/Section%201.pdf  (back to paragraph)

³  Responding to Sexual Abuse: Developing a Community-Based Sexual Abuse Response Team in Aboriginal Communities, Solicitor General Canada, Ottawa, 1997.  (back to paragraph)

⁴  A Guide for Health Professionals Working with Aboriginal Peoples, Janet Smylie, Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada, Ottawa, 2001, p. 13.  (back to paragraph)

⁵  On Our Own Terms: The State of Inuit Culture & Society in Nunavut, Nunavut Social Development Council, Iqaluit, 2001, p. 75.  (back to paragraph)

⁶  On Our Own Terms, p. 75.  (back to paragraph)

⁷  People to People, Nation to Nation, Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, Vol. 1, Minister of Supply and Services Canada, Ottawa, 1996, Chap. 10, p. 3.  (back to paragraph)

⁸  Sharing Our Healing: National Health Conference Report, June 25-27, 1997, Assembly of First Nations, Ottawa, p. 60.  (back to paragraph)

⁹  A Guide for Health Professionals Working with Aboriginal Peoples, Janet Smylie, Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada, Ottawa, 2001, p. 15.  (back to paragraph)

¹⁰  Indigenous Links, Connecting With All My Relations, December 2001, www.allmyrelations.ca.  (back to paragraph)

¹¹  Violence in Aboriginal Communities, Emma D. LaRocque, National Clearinghouse on Family Violence, Health Canada, Ottawa, 1994, p. 74.  (back to paragraph)

¹²  Violence in Aboriginal Communities, p. 73.  (back to paragraph)

¹³  People to People, Nation to Nation, Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, Vol. 3, Minister of Supply and Services Canada, Ottawa, 1996, p. 36. (back to paragraph)

¹⁴  Sacred Lives: Canadian Aboriginal Children and Youth Speak Out About Sexual Exploitation, Cherry Kingsley and Melanie Mark, Save the Children Canada, Vancouver, 2000, p. 30.  (back to paragraph)

¹⁵  Henry Zoe, Dogrib Treaty 11 Council, in a brief to the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples.  (back to paragraph)

¹⁶  Sharing Our Healing: National Health Conference Report, June 25-27, 1997, Assembly of First Nations, Ottawa, p. 65.  (back to paragraph)

¹⁷  Sharing Our Healing: National Health Conference Report, June 25-27, 1997, p. 61.  (back to paragraph)

¹⁸  Sharing Our Healing: National Health Conference Report, June 25-27, 1997, p. 61.  (back to paragraph)

¹⁹  "Healing through interdependence: The role of connecting in First Nations healing practises," Canadian Journal of Counselling, 31(3) (1997): 178-80.  (back to paragraph)

²⁰  "Honouring the Blood of the People: Berry Fasting in the Twenty-First Century," Kim Anderson. In Expressions in Canadian Native Studies, Ron F. Laliberte et al., eds., University Extension Press, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, 2000, p. 384.  (back to paragraph)

²¹  "Honouring the Blood of the People," pp. 386-7.  (back to paragraph)

²²  "Nature and Healing: A Wilderness Retreat Project," Healing Words, 1(3) (1999): 1, Aboriginal Healing Foundation, Ottawa.  (back to paragraph)

²³  The Sacred Tree: Reflections on Native American Spirituality, Judie Bopp, Michael Bopp, Lee Brown and Phil Lane, Four Worlds International Institute for Human and Community Development, Lethbridge, Alberta, 1984, p. 26.  (back to paragraph)

²⁴  A Guide for Health Professionals Working with Aboriginal Peoples, Janet Smylie, Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada, Ottawa, 2001, p. 22.  (back to paragraph)

²⁵  The Inuit Way: A Guide to Inuit Culture, Pauktuutit Inuit Women’s Association, Ottawa, no date, p. 13.  (back to paragraph)

²⁶  The Sacred Tree: Reflections on Native American Spirituality, p. 17.  (back to paragraph)

²⁷  "Special Report on Traditional Midwifery," Suvaguuq, National Newsletter on Inuit Social and Cultural Issues, X(1) (1995): 9, Pauktuutit Inuit Women’s Association, Ottawa.  (back to paragraph)

²⁸  People to People, Nation to Nation, Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, Vol. 3, p. 36.  (back to paragraph)